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•	Highlights
•	Introduction
•	Cholesterol's Effect on the...
•	Cholesterol's Effect on the...
•	Risk Factors
•	Symptoms
•	Diagnosis
•	Lifestyle Changes
•	Treatment
•	Resources
•	References

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•	Coronary Artery Disease and...
•	Heart Attack and Acute Coro...
•	Congestive Heart Failure...
•	High Blood Pressure
•	Exercise
•	Stress
•	Smoking
•	Heart-Healthy Diet
•	Stroke
•	Weight Control and Diet

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Cholesterol

Highlights

Cholesterol Trends

Older Americans are making strides in lowering their total cholesterol levels, but younger adults’ levels are increasing, according to survey data published in the Journal of the American Medical Association and the journal Circulation. Experts think that more widespread use of statin therapy is helping older people reduce their total cholesterol levels. Increasing obesity and poor lifestyle habits may account for the less encouraging trend in younger people.

LDL and Heart Disease

Small lifetime reductions in LDL can make a big difference in heart health. Keeping low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels low at a younger age can prevent the later development of heart disease. A 2006 study in the New England Journal of Medicine suggests the importance of treating unhealthy cholesterol early in life. A healthy diet and weight control are the best first steps for cholesterol management.

Statin Drugs

Statin drugs may be able to reverse heart disease, suggests a study in the Journal of the American Medical Association. The study found that rosuvastatin (Crestor) not only significantly reduces LDL levels but also lowers fatty build-up in clogged arteries. Future research will determine if other statins have a similar positive effect. Rosuvastatin is better at lowering LDL than other statin drugs, but it also has a greater risk for serious side effects.

Low-Carb Diets

Low-carbohydrate diets may improve triglyceride and HDL levels, but they also raise LDL levels, indicates a 2006 study in the Archives of Internal Medicine. Experts do not recommend low-carb diets for cholesterol control.

Soy Foods

Soy does not reduce cholesterol or heart disease risk, according to an American Heart Association (AHA) science advisory. The AHA, however, still recommends including soy foods as part of a heart healthy diet.

Introduction

Lipids are the building blocks of the fats and fatty substances found in animals and plants. They are microscopic layered spheres of oil, which, in animals, are composed mainly of cholesterol, triglycerides, proteins (called lipoproteins), and phospholipids (molecules made up of phosphoric acid, fatty acids, and nitrogen). Lipids do not dissolve in water and are stored in the body to serve as sources of energy.

Cholesterol

Cholesterol is a white, powdery substance that is found in all animal cells and in animal-based foods (not in plants). In spite of its bad press, cholesterol is an essential nutrient necessary for many functions, including:

• Repairing cell membranes
• Manufacturing vitamin D on the skin's surface
• Producing hormones, such as estrogen and testosterone
• Possibly helping cell connections in the brain that are important for learning and memory

Regardless of these benefits, when cholesterol levels rise in the blood, they can have dangerous consequences, depending on the type of cholesterol. Although the body acquires some cholesterol through diet, about two-thirds is manufactured in the liver, its production stimulated by saturated fat. Saturated fats are found in animal products, meat, and dairy products.

Saturated fats are found predominantly in animal products such as meat and dairy products, and are strongly associated with higher cholesterol levels. Tropical oils -- such as palm, coconut, and coconut butter -- are also high in saturated fats.

Triglycerides

Triglycerides are composed of fatty acid molecules. They are the basic chemicals contained in fats in both animals and plants.

Lipoproteins

Lipoproteins are protein spheres that transport cholesterol, triglyceride, or other lipid molecules through the bloodstream. Most of the information about the effects of cholesterol and triglyceride actually concerns lipoproteins.

Lipoproteins are categorized into five types according to size and density. They can be further defined by whether they carry cholesterol or triglycerides.

Cholesterol-Carrying Lipoproteins. These are the lipoproteins commonly referred to as cholesterol.

• Low density lipoproteins (LDL). (Often called the "bad" cholesterol.)
• High-density lipoproteins (HDL), the smallest and most dense. (Referred to as the "good" cholesterol.)

Triglyceride-Carrying Lipoproteins.

• Intermediate density lipoproteins (IDL). They tend to carry triglycerides.
• Very low density lipoproteins (VLDL). These tend to carry triglycerides.
• Chylomicrons (largest in size and lowest in density).

Lipoprotein(a). Lipoprotein(a), or lp(a) has a size and density somewhere between LDL and HDL. The molecules carry a protein that may interfere with the body's ability to dissolve blood clots. Lipoprotein(a) is being investigated as a possible marker or cause of heart disease.

Remnant Lipoproteins. Remnant lipoproteins are byproducts of chylomicrons, very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), or both. Some research indicates that high levels may be an important risk factor for coronary artery disease, particularly in patients who have otherwise normal cholesterol levels.

Cholesterol Guidelines

Reducing LDL and total cholesterol levels, while at the same time boosting HDL levels, can prevent heart attacks and death in all people (with or without heart disease). Reducing LDL is the primary goal of most cholesterol therapy.

Blood tests can easily measure both HDL and overall cholesterol levels. It is very difficult to measure LDL levels by themselves, but LDL levels can be reliably calculated by subtracting HDL and triglyceride levels from total cholesterol. The exact formula is:

LDL = TOTAL CHOLESTEROL - HDL - TRIGLYCERIDES/5.

In 2004, the National Cholesterol Education Program updated its clinical practice guidelines. The new recommendations set lower treatment goals for LDL levels based on a patient's risk factors for heart disease.

The risk factors include:

• Having a first-degree female relative diagnosed with heart disease before age 65 or a first-degree male relative diagnosed before age 55
• Being male and over age 45 or female and over age 55
• Cigarette smoking
• Diabetes
• High blood pressure
• Metabolic syndrome (risk factors associated with obesity such as low HDL levels and high triglycerides)

Two or more of these risk factors increases by 20% the chance of having a heart attack within 10 years.

The LDL cholesterol level is one of the most important factors in determining whether a patient needs cholesterol therapy and whether the treatment is working properly. In particular, the new guidelines emphasize lower LDL levels and earlier treatment for people with coronary artery disease, or other forms of atherosclerosis, and diabetes.

The following chart summarizes all goals.

Although current guidelines as described in the table are extremely useful, they do have pitfalls. For example, the following cholesterol levels pose some dilemmas:

• Low LDL levels (protective) accompanied by low HDL, high triglycerides, or both (harmful).
• High total cholesterol (harmful) accompanied by high HDL (protective).

Would individuals with these cholesterol balances be at high risk or low risk for developing heart disease? To resolve this dilemma, experts have devised a calculation for a risk ratio by dividing the total cholesterol by either total HDL or LDL. It is not clear at this point which ratio is a better predictor of heart disease, although the HDL ratio may be superior. Using this ratio, the following results indicate better to worse outlook:

• The ideal ratio is 3.5 or below
• A ratio of 4.5 carries an average risk
• Ratios of 5 or higher are potentially dangerous

For example, if a person has a high total cholesterol of 280 mg/dL but a high HDL level of 70 mg/dL, the risk ratio is 4, which actually carries a lower than average risk. The use of this ratio may predict coronary artery disease more accurately than using total cholesterol levels alone. Still, the primary goal of lipid-lowering therapy is reducing LDL levels. Evidence strongly suggests that the lower the LDL levels, the lower the risk for heart disease.

Cholesterol's Effect on the Heart

Coronary artery disease, commonly known as heart disease, is the leading cause of death in the U.S. and was responsible for nearly 500,000 deaths in 2003.

Atherosclerosis is a common disorder of the arteries. Fat, cholesterol, and other substances collect in the walls of arteries. Larger accumulations are called atheromas or plaque and can damage artery walls and block blood flow. Severely restricted blood flow in the heart muscle leads to symptoms such as chest pain.

As many as half of these deaths were probably due to unhealthy cholesterol and lipid levels. Strong evidence points to LDL as the villain and HDL as a hero in the process. The role of other lipids, notably triglycerides, is not entirely clear.

Unhealthy cholesterol, particularly low-density lipoprotein (LDL), forms a fatty substance called plaque, which builds up on the arterial walls. Smaller plaques remain soft, but older, larger plaques tend to develop fibrous caps with calcium deposits.

Click the icon to see an image of the developmental process of atherosclerosis.

The long-term result is atherosclerosis, commonly called hardening of the arteries. The heart is endangered in two ways by this process:

• Eventually these calcified and inelastic arteries become narrower (a condition known as stenosis). As this process continues, blood flow slows and prevents sufficient oxygen-rich blood from reaching the heart. This condition leads to angina (chest pain) and, in severe cases, to heart attack.

Click the icon to see an image of a heart attack.

• Smaller unstable plaques may rupture, triggering the formation blood clots on their surface. The blood clots block the arteries and are important causes of heart attack.

This process is accelerated and enhanced by other risk factors, including high blood pressure, smoking, obesity, diabetes, and a sedentary life style. When more than one of these risk factors is present, the risk is compounded.

The effects of cholesterol on the heart may involve more than just the arteries. There is some evidence that unhealthy levels may affect the heart muscles and increase the risk for heart failure. High cholesterol levels may even reduce the protection that aspirin provides for people with heart disease.

On an encouraging note, mortality rates associated with coronary artery disease have declined dramatically during the past 30 years. Some experts estimate that about 30% of the decline is due to better cholesterol management and statin drugs.

Effect of Total Cholesterol

Studies consistently report a higher risk for death from heart disease with high total cholesterol levels (200 mg/dL and higher). The higher the cholesterol, the greater the risk. One study reported that men with total cholesterol levels higher than 240 mg/dL had a risk that two to nearly four times that of men whose cholesterol was below 200 mg/dL. On average, every time a person's cholesterol level drops by a point, the risk of heart disease drops by 2%.

Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL), the "Bad" Cholesterol

The primary villain in the cholesterol story is low-density lipoprotein (LDL). In a major study, the lowest incidence in heart disease was found among people with the lowest LDL levels. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) transports about 75% of the blood's cholesterol to the body's cells. It is normally harmless. However, if it is exposed to a process called oxidation, LDL can penetrate and interact dangerously with the walls of the artery, producing a harmful inflammatory response. Oxidation is a natural process in the body that occurs from chemical combinations with unstable molecules. These molecules are knows as oxygen-free radicals or oxidants.

• When LDL collects on arterial walls these oxidants are released from the wall membranes.
• Oxidants are missing an electron and tend to bind with other molecules in the body, a process called oxidation.
• When the oxidation process modifies LDL, it signals the immune system that a harmful molecule has appeared.

Inflammation and Plaque. In response to oxidized LDL, the body releases various immune factors aimed at protecting the damaged walls. Unfortunately, in excessive quantities they cause inflammation and promote further injury to the areas they target:

• White blood cells and other factors gather and form a fatty substance called plaque. (Of interest in this process is an enzyme called lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2, which binds to oxidized LDL. Studies report that this enzyme may play a major role in the release of plaque-forming inflammatory factors.)
• Other immune factors also cause inflammation and injure the endothelium, the layer of cells that line blood vessels.

Click the icon to see an image of the cut section of an artery.

• Immune factors that increase the risk for blood clots are also mobilized.
• Oxidized LDL plays another dangerous role by reducing levels of nitric oxide, a chemical that helps relax the blood vessels and allow blood to flow freely.

Lowering LDL is the primary goal of cholesterol drug and lifestyle therapy.

High Density Lipoproteins (HDL), the "Good" Cholesterol

High Density Lipoproteins (HDL) appear to benefit the body in two ways:

• It removes cholesterol from the walls of the arteries and returns it to the liver.

Click the icon to see an image of the liver.

• It helps prevent oxidation of LDL. HDL actually appears to have its own antioxidant properties.

HDL helps keep arteries open and reduces the risk for heart attack. High levels of high HDL (above 60 mg/dL) may be nearly as important for the heart as low levels of LDL. HDL levels below 40 mg/dL are considered to be harmful. In one study, for each 4 mg/dL decline in HDL levels there was a 10% increase in coronary artery disease.

Triglycerides

Triglycerides are major troublemakers for the heart. They appear to interact with HDL cholesterol in such a way that HDL levels fall as triglyceride levels rise. Low HDL is known to be harmful to the heart.

The harmful imbalance of high triglycerides with low HDL levels is also associated with obesity (particularly around the abdomen), insulin resistance, and diabetes. Insulin is a hormone essential for regulating the storage and use of glucose (sugar) and amino acids (proteins) in the body. Insulin resistance occurs when there are normal levels of insulin but the body cannot use it. Insulin resistance increases the risk for developing type 2 diabetes, and it is also associated with metabolic syndrome. Both of these conditions increase the risk for heart disease.

Some evidence also suggests that high triglycerides pose other dangers, regardless of cholesterol levels. Triglycerides, for example, may be responsible for blood clots that form and block the arteries. High triglyceride levels are also associated with the inflammatory response -- the harmful effect of an overactive immune system that can cause considerable damage to cells and tissues, including the arteries.

Lipoprotein(a)

Studies are finding an elevated risk for angina and first heart attacks in people with elevated levels of lipoprotein(a), also known as or lp(a). This lipoprotein falls somewhere between HDL and LDL in density and may have some properties that increase the risk for blood clots. Some experts suggest, however, that high levels of lp(a) may merely be markers of late-stage atherosclerosis, not a cause. Because concentrations of lipoprotein(a) are usually inherited, they do not respond to dietary or lifestyle changes. At this time, few experts recommend drug treatments to reduce lp(a) levels. Older women, but not men, appear to be at greater risk for high lp(a) levels and their consequences.

Cholesterol's Effect on the Brain

High Cholesterol and Stroke

Having adequate levels of HDL may be the most important lipid-related factor for preventing ischemic stroke, a type of stroke caused by blockage of the carotid arteries that carry blood to the brain. HDL may even reduce the risk for hemorrhagic stroke, a less common type of stroke caused by bleeding in the brain that is associated with low overall cholesterol levels.

The build-up of plaque in the internal carotid artery may lead to narrowing and irregularity of the artery's lumen, preventing proper blood flow to the brain. More commonly, as the narrowing worsens, pieces of plaque in the internal carotid artery can break free, travel to the brain, and block blood vessels that supply blood to the brain. This leads to stroke, with possible paralysis or other deficits.

The effects of high total cholesterol and LDL levels on ischemic stroke are less clear. One study suggested that the risk for ischemic stroke increases when total cholesterol is above 280 mg/dL. A 2002 study suggested that high cholesterol poses a risk for stroke only when specific proteins associated with inflammation are present.

High Cholesterol and Late-Onset Alzheimer's Disease (AD)

Evidence points to high cholesterol levels, along with high blood pressure and a family history of the disease, as independent risk factors for AD. A major research target for common factors between cholesterol levels and AD has been apolipoprotein E (ApoE). ApoE plays a role in the movement and distribution of cholesterol for repairing nerve cells during development and after injury. People who carry a variant of this gene (ApoE4) are at significantly higher risk for AD.

High cholesterol may pose a risk for Alzheimer's regardless of this genetic factor, however. Some studies report that cholesterol is important within the brain for cell communication and memory.

Risk Factors

About half of all American adults have total cholesterol levels over 200 mg/dL. Over 25% have been told by doctors that they have unhealthy levels. Total cholesterol levels have been declining over the last several decades, at least among middle-aged and older adults. This decline may be partly due to the increased use of statins and other lipid-lowering medications. However, total cholesterol levels are getting higher among younger adults (ages 25 – 34 years.) The major risk factor for these high rates may be the Western lifestyle. The typical high-fat/low-fiber American diet coupled with sedentary habits is largely responsible for this unfortunate trend.

Risk by Gender

Men. Heart disease is the major cause of death in men. On average, men develop coronary artery disease 10 to 15 years earlier than women do and have a greater risk for dying of heart disease at a younger age. A 2006 study suggested that high total cholesterol may also contribute to the development of high blood pressure in men.

Women. Coronary artery disease is also the number one killer of women. Women between the ages of 20 and 34, and after menopause (around age 55), have higher cholesterol levels than men. Some evidence suggests that HDL levels may be more significant in women than in men. In one study, at total cholesterol levels above 200, women with HDL levels below 50 had a higher death rate than those with levels above 50, regardless of their LDL cholesterol levels. Women also appear to be more susceptible to the high-triglyceride low-HDL syndrome, which may be a particular risk factor for heart disease.

Risk by Age

Children and Adolescents. It is not clear what constitutes normal cholesterol levels in children. Changes in cholesterol levels occur between the ages of 8 and 18, and may vary between genders and population groups. In general, cholesterol levels tend to naturally rise sharply until puberty, then decrease sharply, and then rise again.

It is increasingly clear, however, that children who are overweight are at higher risk for high triglycerides and low HDL, which may be directly related to later unhealthy cholesterol levels. Studies have confirmed that childhood LDL levels and body-mass index (BMI) are strongly associated with cardiovascular risk during adulthood.

As in adults, the primary source of unhealthy cholesterol levels in children comes from diets high in unhealthy fats: Saturated fats (found mainly in animal and dairy products) and trans fatty acids (found in commercial food products). Overconsumption of unhealthy fats increases the risk for both obesity and heart disease.

Less common causes of unhealthy cholesterol levels in children include:

• Low-birth weight (associated with low HDL levels)
• Low thyroid levels (hypothyroidism0
• Kidney or liver diseases
• Homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. This is an uncommon inherited condition that causes severe cholesterol imbalances and can result in very early heart disease.
• Certain medications such as specific antiseizure drugs, corticosteroids, and isotretinoin (Accutane)

Young and Middle-Aged Adults. The strongest evidence of unhealthy cholesterol levels and heart disease is in adults over age 45. However, a 2006 analysis found that while total cholesterol levels are decreasing among older adults, they are increasing in those age 25 to 34 years. Research strongly suggests that the younger a person is when unhealthy cholesterol levels develop, the greater the chance for serious heart and blood vessel problems in the future. A 2006 study in the New England Journal of Medicine indicated that keeping LDL levels low from an early age can help prevent heart disease later in life. In one important study, young men (ages 16 through 34) who had cholesterol levels at or above 240 mg/dL had two to four times the risk of dying from heart attack or other cardiac problems than did men whose cholesterol was lower than 200 mg/dL. Young men without cholesterol problems had a higher life expectancy, by up to 8 years. Other studies have suggested similar risks from unhealthy cholesterol in young women as well.

Elderly Adults. About 85% of people who die from coronary artery disease are over the age of 65. Because high cholesterol is an important risk factor for heart disease, experts strongly recommend statin or other lipid-lowering therapy for elderly people with high cholesterol levels. Surveys indicate that total cholesterol levels have been declining in older people over the last few decades. Many experts believe this is due in part to increased use of statin drugs.

Obesity, Metabolic Syndrome, and Type 2 Diabetes

In the U.S., obesity is at epidemic levels in all age groups. The effect of obesity on cholesterol levels is complex. Although obesity does not appear to be strongly associated with overall cholesterol levels, obese individuals tend to have high triglyceride levels and low HDL levels. This combination is a risk factor for heart disease. Obesity also causes other effects (high blood pressure, increase in inflammation) that pose major risks to the heart.

Obesity is a particularly hazard when it is one of the components of the metabolic syndrome, formerly known as syndrome X. This syndrome consists of obesity marked by abdominal fat, unhealthy cholesterol levels, high blood pressure, and insulin resistance. Metabolic syndrome is a pre-diabetic condition that is significantly associated with heart disease and higher mortality rates from all causes. A 2002 study estimated that 24% of the population now has this condition.

Obesity is also strongly associated with type 2 diabetes, which itself poses a significant risk for high cholesterol levels and heart disease.

Hypothyroidism

Low thyroid levels (hypothyroidism) are associated with unhealthy lipid levels. (Lipids are fat molecules). Specifically, people with hypothyroidism are at higher risk for high total and LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and other lipids associated with heart disease. Treating the thyroid condition can significantly reduce cholesterol levels. Some experts suggest that patients with high cholesterol should be evaluated for thyroid function before they are given cholesterol-lowering drugs. Research is mixed on whether mild hypothyroidism (subclinical hypothyroidism) is associated with unhealthy cholesterol levels. [For more information, see In-Depth Report #38: Hypothyroidism.]

Hypothyroidism is a decreased activity of the thyroid gland which may affect all body functions. In this condition, the rate of metabolism slows, causing mental and physical sluggishness. The most severe form of hypothyroidism is myxedema, which is a medical emergency.

Genetic Factors and Family History

Genetics play a major role in determining a person's blood cholesterol levels. Children from families with a history of premature heart disease should be tested for cholesterol levels after they are 2 years old. Genes may influence whether a person has low HDL levels, high LDL levels, high triglycerides, or high levels of other lipoproteins, such as lipoprotein(a).

Some inherited disorders and genetic abnormalities have been identified:

• Familial hypercholesterolemia causes dangerous increases in cholesterol. It may be more common than previously thought. One European study reported familial hypercholesterolemia in 1 out of every 400 people.
• Familial lipoprotein lipase deficiency is a very rare disorder that causes depletion of lipoprotein lipase. This is an enzyme that appears to be important in the removal of lipoproteins that are rich in triglycerides. People who are deficient in it have high levels of cholesterol and fat in their blood. A very low-fat diet is essential and is an effective treatment for these individuals.
• Several studies have found a genetic mutation affecting neuropeptide Y in people with high total cholesterol and LDL levels. Neuropeptide Y is a compound in the brain that regulates appetite.
• Researchers have identified a gene called APOAV, which may help detect patients at risk for elevated levels of triglycerides.

Other Medical Conditions

Other medical conditions strongly associated with unhealthy cholesterol levels include:

• Polycystic ovarian syndrome. Women with this disorder, particularly those who are obese, appear to be at increased risk for high triglyceride and low HDL levels. This risk may be due to higher levels of the male hormone testosterone in these women.

Click the icon to see an image of a polycystic ovary.

• Kidney disease.

Symptoms

There are no warning signs for high LDL cholesterol levels. When symptoms finally occur, they usually take the form of angina or heart attack in response to the buildup of atherosclerotic plaque in the patient's arteries. This is definitely a condition where it pays to invest in preventive medicine before dangerous complications occur.

Atherosclerosis is a disease of the arteries in which fatty material is deposited in the vessel wall, resulting in narrowing and eventual impairment of blood flow. Severely restricted blood flow in the arteries to the heart muscle leads to symptoms such as chest pain. Atherosclerosis shows no symptoms until a complication occurs.

Diagnosis

A blood test for cholesterol should include the entire lipoprotein profile: LDL, total cholesterol, HDL, and triglycerides. It is very difficult to measure LDL levels by themselves, but LDL levels can be reliably calculated using total cholesterol and HDL levels.

To obtain a reliable cholesterol reading, experts advise:

• Avoid strenuous exercise for 24 hours before the test.
• Do not eat or drink anything but water for 12 hours beforehand.
• If the test results are abnormal, a second test should be performed between 1 week and 2 months after the first test.

Home Tests. Tests are available for home use and in public locations, such as shopping malls and pharmacies. For example, the CholesTrak Test can be taken at home with results in 10 minutes, but it measures only total cholesterol. The BioSafe Cholesterol Panel Test is also a home test, but it needs to be sent to a laboratory. This test, however, is very accurate and provides a full lipid profile.

Tests for Markers of Heart Disease in People with Unhealthy Lipid Levels

Certain blood tests for factors associated with inflammation in the arteries indicate a higher risk for heart disease, even in people without unhealthy lipids:

• C-reactive protein (CRP). CRP is regulated by a very potent immune factor called interleukin-6. Elevated levels have been strongly associated with the inflammatory response and a higher risk for heart attack, even in people with normal cholesterol levels. CRP is also associated with high blood pressure, insulin resistance (the primary problem in type 2 diabetes), and obesity.
• A high white blood cell count.
• Elevated fibrinogen (a factor responsible for blood clotting).
• Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 may prove to be another marker for inflammation and heart disease. Studies suggest that it may play some causal role in coronary artery disease.

Skin Test

A new type of test measures cholesterol levels in the skin. High skin levels may indicate an increased risk for atherosclerosis and serious heart disease.

Lifestyle Changes

Although most studies that prove that lowering cholesterol saves lives are done using drug therapy, the absolute mandate for improving cholesterol levels is to first make changes in lifestyle (both diet and exercise). Even when drugs are used, healthy diet and physical activity are critical companions.

Heart Healthy Diets

Although there are many major dietary approaches for protecting health, experts generally agree on the following recommendations for heart protection:· 

• Choose fiber-rich food (whole grains, legumes, nuts) as the main source of carbohydrates, along with a high intake of fresh fruits and vegetables. Walnuts in particular have cholesterol-lowering properties and are a good source of antioxidants and alpha-linolenic acid.
• Avoid saturated fats (found mostly in animal products) and trans fatty acids (found in hydrogenated fats and many commercial products and fast foods). Choose unsaturated fats (particularly omega-3 fatty acids found in vegetable and fish oils).
• In selecting proteins, choose soy protein, poultry, and fish over meat. A 2006 study found that soy does not help improve cholesterol. However, experts still recommend it as a heart healthy food choice.
• Controlling weight, quitting smoking, and exercising are essential companions of any diet program.

After embarking on any heart healthy diet, it generally takes an average of 3 to 6 months before any noticeable reduction in cholesterol occurs. However, some people see improved levels in as few as 4 weeks. An intensive program may be necessary to achieve significant improvements in cholesterol levels and to reduce heart risk factors.

Therapeutic Lifestyle Changes (TLC) from the National Cholesterol Education Program. Guidelines from the National Cholesterol Education Program include these recommendations for preventing and managing high cholesterol levels in adults:

• Choose five or more servings of fresh fruits and vegetables and six or more servings of whole grains, legumes. Soluble fiber is preferred (from cereal grains, beans, peas, legumes, and many fruits and vegetables).
• Fats can be up to 35% of daily calories, but no more than 7% should be from saturated fat. (People with high triglycerides, low HDL, or both may need a higher fat intake.) Choose fats containing unsaturated fatty acids (from vegetables, fish, legumes, and nuts). Choose margarines containing sterols or stanols (Benecol, Take Control). Avoid trans fatty acids found in commercial baked products.
• Protein choices should be fat-free and low-fat milk products, fish, legumes, skinless poultry, and lean meats.
• Limit dietary cholesterol intake to less than 200 mg per day.
• Maintain healthy body weight and a healthy level of physical fitness.

Mediterranean Diet. The Mediterranean diet is rich in heart-healthy fiber and nutrients, including omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants. The diet consists of fruits, vegetables, and unsaturated “good” fats, particularly olive oil. Olive oil has been associated with lower blood pressure, a lower risk for heart disease, and possible benefits for people with type 2 diabetes.

There are several variations to the Mediterranean diet but general recommendations include:

• Limit red meats.
• Drink one or two glasses of wine each day if alcohol is enjoyable and there are no reasons to restrict its use.
• Limit dairy products.
• Eat moderate amounts of fish and poultry. Fish is the diet’s main protein source. One study suggests that fish is the primary heart-protective ingredient in this diet.
• Eat plenty of fresh fruits and vegetables, nuts, legumes, beans, and whole grains.
• Season foods with garlic, onions, and herbs.

Low-Carbohydrate Diets. The Atkins, South Beach, The Zone, and other diet restrict carbohydrate intake include. A 2006 review of low-carbohydrate diets found that they did help weight loss in the short term. However, while these diets appeared to lower triglyceride and raise HDL (“good”) cholesterol levels, they also raised overall and LDL (“bad”) cholesterol levels. There is not yet enough evidence to indicate whether the good heart effects of these diets outweigh the bad effects. At this time, experts do not recommend low-carbohydrate diets for heart disease prevention.

Low Fat Diets. Dietary guidelines recommend keeping total fat intake to 20 – 30% of total daily calories, with saturated fat less than 10% of calories. Low-fat diets generally restrict fat intake to 20% or less of total daily calories. The Ornish program, which is recommended for some heart disease patients, limits fats even more drastically. It aims at reducing saturated fats as much as possible, restricting total fat to 10%, and increasing carbohydrates to 75% of calories. In 2006, the largest study to date on low-fat diets found that they did not help prevent heart disease or cancer. Women in the study reduced their fat consumption to 24 – 29% of total daily calories. Some critics say that the study did not do enough to distinguish between good types of fats (monounsaturated omega-3 polyunsaturated) and bad fats (saturated and trans fats).

The DASH Diet. The DASH diet (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension) is proving to help lower blood pressure. Results are sometimes seen within a few weeks. Restricting sodium improves results. The diet appears to have antioxidant effects and may help lower LDL cholesterol levels, although beneficial HDL levels also decline.This diet is not only rich in important nutrients and fiber but also includes foods that contain far more electrolytes, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, than are found in the average American diet.

A diet that is effective in lowering blood pressure is called Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH).

The DASH diet recommends:

• Reduce saturated fat (but include calcium-rich dairy products that are non- or low-fat).
• When choosing fats, select monounsaturated oils, such as olive or canola oils.
• Choose whole grains over white flour or pasta products.
• Choose fresh fruits and vegetables every day. In one study people who increased their intake of fruits and vegetables experienced a drop in blood pressure after 6 months. Many of these foods are rich in potassium, fiber, or both which may help lower blood pressure.
• Include nuts, seeds, or legumes (dried beans or peas) daily.
• Choose modest amounts of protein (preferably fish, poultry, or soy products)

Slight changes to the DASH diet might help lower blood pressure even more, as well as improve cholesterol and lipid levels. Researchers reporting in the Journal of the American Medical Association and at the 2005 American Heart Association meeting said that replacing some carbohydrates in the DASH diet with more protein (from mostly plant sources) or monounsaturated fats may help reduce heart disease risk factors.

Calorie Restriction. Calorie restriction has been the cornerstone of weight-loss programs. Restricting calories in such cases also appears to have beneficial effects on cholesterol levels, including reducing LDL and triglycerides and increasing HDL levels. At this point, reducing calories and increasing exercise is still the best method for maintaining weight loss and preventing serious conditions, notably diabetes. A 2006 study reported that a low-calorie, but nutritionally balanced diet can help prevent an aging-associated change in heart function. Patients in the small study took in 1,400 – 2,000 calories a day for an average of 6 years.

The standard dietary recommendations for losing weight are the following:

• As a rough rule of thumb, one pound of fat equals about 3,500 calories, so one could lose a pound a week by reducing daily caloric intake by about 500 calories a day. Naturally, the more severe the daily calorie restriction, the faster the weight loss.
• To determine the daily calorie requirements for specific individuals, multiply the number of pounds of ideal weight by 12 to 15 calories. The number of calories per pound depends on gender, age, and activity levels. For instance, a 50-year-old moderately active woman who wants to maintain a weight of 135 pounds might require only 12 calories per pound (1,620 calories a day). A 25-year-old female athlete who wants to maintain the same weight might require 25 calories per pound 2,025 (calories a day).

Fat intake should be no more than 30% of total calories. Most fats should be in the form of monounsaturated fats (such as olive oil). Saturated fats (found in animal products) should be avoided.

Exercise

Inactivity is one of the four major risk factors for coronary artery disease, on par with smoking, unhealthy cholesterol, and high blood pressure. In fact, studies suggest that people who change their diet in order to control cholesterol only achieve a lower risk for heart disease when they also follow a regular aerobic exercise program.

• People who maintain an active lifestyle have a 45% lower risk of developing heart disease than sedentary people. Even moderate exercise reduces the risk of heart attack. One study of women found that just 1 hour of walking a week was associated with a lower risk for heart disease. The effects were similar even in women at high risk for developing heart disease.
• Some studies suggest that for the greatest heart protection, it is not the duration of a single exercise session that counts but the total daily amount of energy expended. Therefore, the best way to exercise may be in multiple short bouts of intense exercise.
• Burning at least 250 calories a day (the equivalent of about 45 minutes of brisk walking or 25 minutes of jogging) seems to offer the greatest protection against coronary artery disease, most likely because it raises HDL ("good cholesterol") levels. Moderate exercise has little effect on HDL.
• Aerobic exercise helps to open up blood vessels and, in combination with a healthy diet, may improve blood-clotting factors.
• Resistance (weight) training offers a complementary benefit to aerobics by reducing LDL ("bad cholesterol") levels.
• Exercises that train and strengthen the chest muscles may prove to be very important for patients with angina.

Quitting Smoking

Cigarette smoking lowers HDL and is directly responsible for approximately 20% of all deaths from heart disease. The importance of breaking this habit cannot be emphasized enough. Once a person quits smoking, HDL cholesterol levels rise within weeks or months to levels that are equal to their nonsmoking peers. Passive smoking also reduces HDL levels in people exposed to cigarette smoke.

Alcohol

A number of studies have found heart protection from moderate intake of alcohol (one or two glasses a day). Moderate amounts of alcohol help raise HDL levels. Although red wine is most often cited for healthful properties, any type of alcoholic beverage appears to have similar benefit. Pregnant women, anyone who cannot drink moderately, and people with liver disease should not drink at all.

Treatment

In 2004, the National Cholesterol Education Program issued its latest recommendations for cholesterol control and management. These guidelines increase the number of Americans who should be taking LDL-lowering medication.

Starting Medications. Even modest lowering of high cholesterol levels, whether through drug therapy or lifestyle changes, reduces the risk of disability and death from heart disease. Most experts now focus on lowering LDL cholesterol, the "bad" kind. Reducing LDL levels is particularly critical for patients with diabetes.

The doctor will start or consider medication when:

• LDL cholesterol is 190 mg/dL or higher.
• LDL cholesterol is 160 mg/dL or higher AND patient has one risk factor for heart disease.
• LDL cholesterol is 130 mg/dL or higher AND patient has either diabetes or two other risk factors for heart disease.
• LDL cholesterol is 100 mg/dL or higher AND patient has heart disease. (If patient has diabetes, even without heart disease, medication may be considered for an LDL cholesterol of 100 mg/dL)
• LDL cholesterol is greater than 70 mg/dL AND patient has had a recent heart attack or has known heart disease along with diabetes, current cigarette smoking, poorly controlled high blood pressure, or the metabolic syndrome (high triglycerides, low HDL, and obesity).

Risk factors for heart disease include:

• Having a first-degree female relative diagnosed with heart disease before age 65 or a first-degree male relative diagnosed before age 55
• Being male and over age 45 or female and over age 55
• Cigarette smoking
• Diabetes
• High blood pressure
• Metabolic syndrome (risk factors associated with obesity such as low HDL levels and high triglycerides)

Recent studies have found that aggressive lipid lowering with high-dose statin therapy is more beneficial than standard statin therapy in patients with existing heart disease. The Pravastatin or Atorvastatin Evaluation and Infection Trial (PROVE-IT) and the Reversal of Atherosclerosis with Aggressive Lipid-Lowering trial (REVERSAL) compared the benefits of standard statin therapy (pravastatin, 40 mg) with intensive statin therapy (atorvastatin, 80 mg) in treating patients with heart disease.

Results from PROVE-IT demonstrated that for high-risk patients, intensive statin therapy is more effective than standard therapy in lowering LDL cholesterol and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, and that CRP levels predict risk even when LDL cholesterol has been lowered substantially. The REVERSAL data suggest that intensive statin therapy produces greater reductions in LDL and CRP levels, and that the more that statins can lower LDL, the more effective they are in reducing the progression of atherosclerosis.

An important 2006 study found that aggressive treatment with rosuvastatin (Crestor):

• Helped lower LDL to below guideline levels
• Moderately increased HDL levels
• Reduced fatty plaque in the arteries

These results suggest that statin therapy might have the potential to reverse coronary atherosclerosis. Future studies will explore whether other statins have a similar positive effect on coronary artery disease. Rosuvastatin lowers LDL more than other statins, but it also carries greater risks for more serious side effects (see Adverse Effects section.) Many experts believe that the more that LDL is reduced through statin therapy, the greater the reduction in risk for heart disease, heart attack, and stroke.

Evidence indicates that cholesterol-lowering drugs improve survival in heart attack patients. However, a 2001 study reported that only about a fourth of patients have their cholesterol checked after a heart attack, and only about 30% with unhealthy cholesterol levels are prescribed cholesterol-lowering drugs. In addition, research presented at the 2004 annual scientific sessions of the American Heart Association demonstrated ethnic disparities in cholesterol management. According to the data from the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA), Hispanics and non-Hispanic blacks were less likely to receive adequate drug treatment than non-Hispanic whites.

It is important to emphasize that cholesterol-lowering medications are used along with healthy lifestyle habits, not in place of them. In spite of these guidelines, fewer than half of people who would presumably benefit from cholesterol-lowering drugs are taking them.

Choosing the Correct Lipid-Lowering Medication. Experts now recommend that drug treatments be tailored for raising or lowering specific lipids, depending on the patient's blood lipid picture:

• Statins are now the standard drugs for most people who require LDL-lowering therapy. Bile-acid binding resins or niacin may be considered. (Another LDL-lowering drug, probucol, is usually limited to people with genetic disorders that cause severely high cholesterol levels.) If LDL goals are not achieved, combinations of a statin with a bile-acid resin or niacin should be considered.
• Fibrates or niacin are beneficial for people who need to lower triglycerides and increase HDL.

Considerations for Children and Adolescents. Children and adolescents with high cholesterol levels should first change any lifestyle risk factors (obesity, high-fat diet, sedentary habits) that might responsible. Young people over 7 or 8 years old with evidence of inherited unhealthy cholesterol levels (LDL over 190 mg/dL) may benefit from the following medications:

• Statins are effective for children with genetic conditions that cause early elevations in cholesterol and may help reduce long-term dangers.
• Bile-acid binding resins may be an alternative choice, assuming the child has normal triglyceride levels. A multiple vitamin with folic acid and iron supplements may be needed in such cases.
• Nicotinic acid (niacin) may be an option for young people with high triglycerides.

Cholesterol-lowering drugs are also prescribed for some children who have high cholesterol levels without evidence of genetic causes. It should be noted that there is no evidence on the long-term safety of statins or any cholesterol-lowering drugs in children. Parents should discuss medications very carefully with their doctors and, in any case, always focus on lifestyle factors.

Considerations for People with Diabetes. At this time, statins are recommended as the best drugs for improving cholesterol and lipid levels in people with diabetes. Studies suggest that they can reduce the risk for adverse heart events in people with diabetes, even if their cholesterol levels are normal or if their diabetes is mild. Furthermore, in one study, a statin was shown to reduce the risk of developing diabetes by 30% in people with high cholesterol. Fibrates may also be useful for people with type 2 diabetes. Niacin (nicotinic acid) has the best effect on the cholesterol profile of people with diabetes but it also increases blood sugar levels. One well-controlled study, however, found that people with diabetes who used niacin had little trouble with glucose control, and some experts believe it now may be used as an alternative to or in combination with statins.

Statins

Statins are the most effective drugs for the treatment of high cholesterol, and may even prove important drugs for many people at risk for heart disease who have normal cholesterol levels. Statins inhibit the liver enzyme hMG-CoA reductase, which is used in the manufacturing of cholesterol. These drugs effectively reduce the risk of major coronary events, including first and second heart attacks, in both adult women and men of any age with unhealthy cholesterol levels. Experts estimate a 25 - 30% reduction in mortality rates when patients take statins after a heart attack. (Some believe the decrease may even be greater.) These drugs may also help improve the outcome in patients with heart disease who have had angioplasty.

Important studies have reported lower rates of heart attack, stroke, and mortality rates from all causes in statin users who were at high risk for heart disease, even if they had normal or low cholesterol levels. Benefits were similar in these people regardless of gender, age, or the presence of specific heart risk factors, such as diabetes or peripheral artery disease.

Brands. Statins are currently categorized into four groups:

• So-called natural statins, including lovastatin (Mevacor), pravastatin (Pravachol), and simvastatin (Zocor). These are the most studied statins and have proven effectiveness and good safety record.
• Synthetic statins include fluvastatin (Lescol) and atorvastatin (Lipitor). Studies using atorvastatin suggest they may reduce LDL more effectively than natural statins. Lipitor is also approved for children.
• The newer statins, called "superstatins" by their manufacturers, include rosuvastatin (Crestor), which was approved in 2003. Trial results have suggested that rosuvastatin is more effective in improving lipid profiles than atorvastatin, simvastatin, or pravastatin. However, like all statin drugs, rovustatin can cause serious side effects (see the Adverse Effects section in this report). The risks may be higher for Asian patients; this population should be started on the lowest rosuvastatin dose (5 mg).
• Fixed-dose combination statins, which combine two drugs in one pill, first appeared on the market in 2004. Ezetimibe/simvastatin (Vytorin) combines two cholesterol medications that work in different ways. Simvastatin blocks cholesterol production in the liver, while ezetimibe (a non-statin cholesterol medication) blocks cholesterol absorption in the digestive tract. A 2005 study found that Vytorin was more effective than atorvastatin in lowering LDL and increasing HDL levels. Amlodipine/atorvastatin (Caduet) is a dual-therapy medication that combines the antihypertensive calcium channel blocker amlodipine with atorvastatin. It is used to treat simultaneously high blood pressure and high cholesterol.

Statins are generally administered once a day, typically in the evening because most cholesterol synthesis occurs between midnight and 3 A.M. Statins are often prescribed along with other cholesterol-lowering drugs such as bile acid-binding resins, nicotinic acid (niacin), and fibrates.

Beneficial Effects on the Heart and Circulation.

Statins are particularly effective for lowering LDL levels. They also reduce triglycerides, apparently in direct proportion to their LDL-lowering effects. Statins also raise HDL levels, but to a lesser extent than other anti-cholesterol drugs. (The newer "superstatins" appear to produce more significant increases in HDL.) Evidence now strongly suggests that statins may offer other health benefits beyond lowering cholesterol:

• Statins may improve the function of the endothelium (the lining of blood vessels), thereby improving blood flow. (This benefit apparently does not extend to people with diabetes.)
• Statins appear to reduce inflammation in the arteries, which is now believed to be a major factor in blood vessel injury.
• Some evidence suggests that statins may help prevent blood clotting, a major factor in heart attacks.

Beneficial Effects Outside the Heart. Studies also suggest that the benefits of statins go beyond the heart. At this time, nearly all studies on the following conditions have used natural statins:

• Stroke. Statins may reduce the risk for ischemic stroke in high-risk patients with a wide range of cholesterol and lipid levels. (Ischemic strokes occur from blockage in the blood vessels that lead to the brain.) In 2003, statin therapy was shown to reduce both fatal and non-fatal stroke in patients with hypertension and at least three additional cardiovascular risk factors. A 2004 study of stroke patients found that those who were receiving statin therapy at the time of their stroke had more favorable long-term outcomes than patients who were not on statin therapy, suggesting that statin therapy may provide additional benefits to patients who develop stroke.
• Diabetes. Statins may have a number of effects that are helpful for patients with diabetes, and may even prevent diabetes in some people with high cholesterol. Statins, however, do not appear to have any effect on blood vessel inflexibility in diabetes, which is an important risk factor for heart disease in these patients. A major 2003 study found that statin therapy helped prevent cardiovascular events including coronary death, heart attack, stroke, and the need for revascularization therapy in patients with diabetes, even in those who did not have high cholesterol levels or established coronary disease.
• High Blood Pressure. In an important 2002 study, patients with high blood pressure but norhMG-CoA reductasemal or slightly high cholesterol levels had fewer heart attacks and strokes when they took the statin atorvastatin. The study was stopped so all subjects could take statins. An earlier study showed similar benefits with the statin simvastatin.
• Alzheimer's Disease. A number of studies have reported a significantly lower risk for Alzheimer's disease in people who take specific statins. Some evidence suggests they may even improve mental function in people without unhealthy cholesterol levels. Statis showing the greatest promise include lovastatin (Mevacor), pravastatin (Pravachol), and atorvastatin (Lipitor.) These statins appear to reduce levels of beta-amyloid. Other statins have not been associated with a lower risk for Alzheimer's. In fact, some researchers are concerned that certain statins that cross the blood-brain barrier may actually worsen Alzheimer's in people who already have it.
• Osteoporosis. Some preliminary reports have suggested that statins may protect against bone loss in older women. It is not clear, however, if the statins themselves have properties that prevent osteoporosis or if any cholesterol-lowering drug would work equally well.
• Kidney Disease. Statins may prove to protect against heart disease development in patients with mild kidney disorders. According to a 2004 study, statins may also help slow the progression of existing kidney disease.
• Eye Disease. Studies are investigating whether statins can help prevent macular degeneration, an age-related eye disease that can lead to blindness. Research is still preliminary, and results have been mixed.

Macular degeneration is a disease of the retina that affects the macula in the back of the eye. The macula is important for clear central vision, allowing an individual to see fine details. There are two types of macular degeneration, dry and wet. Dry macular degeneration is more common and is characterized by the thinning of the retina and drusen, small white deposits that form within the retina. The dry form of macular degeneration is usually mild. Wet macular degeneration can happen more quickly and be more serious. It occurs when vessels under the retinal layer hemorrhage and cause the retinal cells to die, creating blind spots or distorted vision in the central vision. The disease becomes increasingly common among people in each succeeding decade over 50.

Adverse Effects. The statins tend to be better tolerated than other cholesterol-lowering drugs. In many studies the side effects reported were nearly the same as those taking placebo. Side effects may include gastrointestinal discomfort, headaches, skin rashes, muscle aches, sexual dysfunction, drowsiness, dizziness, nausea, constipation, and peripheral neuropathy (numbness or tingling in the hands and feet).

The primary safety concern with statins has involved an uncommon condition called myopathy, which can cause muscle damage and in some cases, muscle and joint pain. A specific myopathy, called rhabdomyolysis, can lead to kidney failure. Reports of rhabdomyolysis prompted the recall of cerivastatin (Baycol) in 2001. The risk for myopathy/rhabdomyolysis is highest at higher doses and in older people (over 65 years), those with hyperthyroidism, and those with renal insufficiency (kidney disease). Both statins and fibrates carry a risk for myopathy. The combination of the two drugs increases this side effect. Some people who use a statin-fibrate combination withdraw from the regimen because of muscle discomfort.

In 2005, the FDA issued a public health advisory for rosuvastatin (Crestor), noting that this drug, like other statins, increased the risk for myopathy and rhabdomyolysis. The risks were greatest at the highest dose level (40 mg). The FDA advises that patients should not start therapy at this dose. In addition, the FDA reported the results of a post-marketing study that found that people of Asian heritage had twice the blood levels of the drug as Caucasians who had taken the same dose. Because of this difference in drug metabolism, the FDA advises that Asian Americans should start treatment at the lowest rosuvastatin dose (5 mg). In general, all statin therapy should start at a lower dose and be raised incrementally until healthy cholesterol levels are maintained. Patients should immediately tell their doctor about any unusual muscle discomfort or weakness, fever, nausea or vomiting, or darkening of urine color.

Statins can also affect the liver, particularly at higher doses, so patients should have periodic liver function tests. Statins should not be taken by anyone with liver problems or by women during pregnancy or breast-feeding. Similarly, high statin doses increase the risk for kidney failure, particularly for patients with other existing risk factors (diabetes, hypertension, atherosclerosis, history of heart failure).

Interactions with Drugs and Food. Statins may have some adverse interactions with other drugs, including other cholesterol-lowering medications. Among the drugs that increase the risk for adverse effects are cyclosporine, macrolide antibiotics, and certain antifungals. Patients should tell their doctors about any other medications they are taking. Grapefruit juice and Seville oranges may increase statin potency.

Nicotinic Acid (Niacin)

Brands. Nicotinic acid is the active compound found in niacin, or vitamin B3. It is the first choice for patients with low HDL levels. Brands include Niacor, Nicolar, and Slo-Niacin. An extended-release form (Niaspan), administered at bedtime, may have fewer side effects, including headaches and flushing, than rapidly-acting niacin drugs. Although niacin is available over the counter, the active form used for cholesterol is given in much higher doses and is available only by prescription. It is important to take this medication under a doctor's direction in order to ensure its safety and effectiveness.

Benefits. When used in high doses, it has the following benefits:

• Raises HDL levels higher than other anti-cholesterol drugs
• Reducing triglyceride levels very effectively
• Lowers LDL-cholesterol and lipoprotein(a).
• Costs less than other anti-cholesterol drugs

Combinations with other drugs, particularly statins, may add significant benefits.

Side Effects. Many patients find nicotinic acid's side effects intolerable. About a quarter of patients who use rapid-acting forms of nicotinic acid stop taking them. The most common side effects are flushing of the face and neck, itching, headache, blurred vision, and dizziness. They usually occur between 5 minutes to hours after taking the drug and can last for minutes to, uncommonly, hours. The body does eventually become tolerant to these effects, and they generally subside.

The following may reduce flushing and itching:

• Starting with low doses taken at mealtime and gradually working up to the prescribed dose.
• Taking low-dose aspirin about 30 minutes before taking nicotinic acid. This may help prevent flushing.
• Avoiding hot drinks.
• Choosing an extended release form. (Even with this form, it is wise to gradually increase the bedtime dose over time and take a low-dose aspirin a half-hour beforehand.)

Stomach problems are common. Other side effects include dry skin and mucous membranes and darkening of the skin.

About 30% of patients who take niacin experience elevated levels in blood glucose, which can be a problem for people with diabetes. Niacin's effects on HDL and triglycerides, however, are especially suited for the lipid imbalances that are common in diabetes. And, some studies report that people with diabetes who use niacin have little trouble with blood sugar control.

Potentially Serious Complications. About 3 - 5% of people taking nicotinic acid develop liver problems, which disappear after the medication is discontinued. The extended form (Niaspan) appears to be safe for the liver, but people with chronic liver disease should not use any form of nicotinic acid. People with gout should also avoid nicotinic acid because it elevates uric acid.

Bile-Acid Binding Resins

Bile-acid binding resins work, as their name suggests, by binding to bile in the digestive tract. This reduces cholesterol in the following way:

• Bile is made in the liver and is used as one of the body's primary manufacturing components.

Click the icon to see an image of the gallbladder.

• Once the resins bind to bile in the digestive tract, the bile is excreted in feces.
• As the resins eliminate bile from the body, the liver takes more cholesterol from the bloodstream in order to produce more bile.
• As cholesterol is taken out of the bloodstream, LDL levels drop.

When used in combination with dietary control, LDL levels are reduced by 15 - 20%. Combinations with nicotinic acid are even more effective, with reductions of 40 - 60% observed.

Brands. The bile-acid binding resins and similar drugs include cholestyramine (Questran, Questran Light) and colestipol (Colestid). They are commonly used either in a powder that is dissolved in liquid or as a chewable bar (Cholybar). Colesevelam (Cholestagelm, Welchol) is available in tablet form.

Side Effects. None of these drugs poses major risks. Most, however, cause constipation, heartburn, gas, and other gastrointestinal problems, side effects that many people cannot tolerate. One study found that only half the standard dose of colestipol was needed when psyllium, (a soluble fiber supplement found in Metamucil, Fiberall, and Perdiem), was added to the drink. In addition, bloating and constipation were reduced. Colesevelam, a newer resin, appears to have significantly fewer of these side effects.

Bile-acting drugs may contribute to calcium loss and therefore increase the risk for osteoporosis. Over time, deficiencies of vitamins A, D, E, and K may occur, and vitamin supplements may be necessary.

Rarely, toxic effects on the liver have been reported. Patients with liver disorders should be monitored.

Drug Interactions. Bile-acid binding resins may also interfere with other medications, including digoxin (Lanoxin), warfarin, beta-blocker drugs, and a number of medications used to treat low blood sugar. In order to prevent drug interactions, other drugs should be taken 1 hour before or 4 to 6 hours after taking the bile acid-binding resins.

Fibrates

Brands. Fibrates (sometimes called fibric acid derivatives) break down the particles that make triglycerides. Gemfibrozil (Lopid) is the standard fibrate. It is usually taken twice a day, 30 minutes before breakfast and before the evening meal. Newer fibrates, including fenofibrate (Tricor) and bezafibrate (Bezalip), may be more effective in lowering cholesterol than gemfibrozil. Clofibrate (Atromid-S) was the first fibrate used but is now rarely prescribed because of its serious side effects.

Benefits. Most fibrates have been shown to lower the risk of heart attack. In a 2001 study, men with both low HDL and LDL levels had a slightly lower risk of stroke after taking gemfibrozil. Fibric acid derivatives, or fibrates, have the following effects on cholesterol, lipids, and other factors:

• They are good choices for many patients who need to lower triglyceride levels and increase HDL but who cannot take drugs ordinarily used for these purposes, such as nicotinic acid. In one study gemfibrozil, the standard fibrate, reduced the risk for adverse heart events by 22%.
• Fibrates can produce modest reductions in LDL levels, although not as effectively as statins or other drugs. LDL may actually increase in patients with very high triglycerides who take these drugs. (The newer fibrates are much more effective in lowering LDL than gemfibrozil.)
• A study on bezafibrate suggested it might have anti-inflammatory effects in patients with high triglyceride levels. Inflammation in the blood vessels is now recognized as a major contributor to the disease process leading to heart disease. However, according to a 2004 study, patients with diabetes or impaired fasting glucose levels were less likely to benefit from bezafibrate.
• A study on fenofibrate further suggested that it reduced certain clotting factors (another risk factor for heart disease) and also uric acid (a risk factor for gout). Another study, published in 2004, demonstrated that like bezafibrate, fenofibrate has significant anti-inflammatory properties in patients with high triglyceride levels.

Concerns. Fibrates do not appear to reduce mortality rates. In one study, people who took gemfibrozil had higher rates of death from other causes, including cancer. Some evidence suggests that fibrates may affect receptors involved in cancer development. However, a number of studies have found no higher incidence of cancer.

Side Effects. Side effects may include gastrointestinal discomfort, aching muscles, sensitivity to sunlight, and skin rashes. Fibrates have been known to cause gallstones, so people with gallbladder problems should not use these drugs.

Click the icon to see an image of gallstones in the gallbladder.

The drugs may cause abnormal heart rhythms and can affect the liver and kidney.

Drug Interactions. Fibrates interact with a number of drugs and substances including warfarin, some oral drugs used for diabetes, certain antibiotics, and grapefruit juice.

Probucol

Probucol (Lorelco) lowers LDL-cholesterol levels by 10 - 15% and is also an antioxidant. Unfortunately, it also lowers the beneficial HDL levels by 20 - 30%. Probucol is generally used for certain genetic disorders that cause high cholesterol levels, or when other cholesterol-lowering drugs are ineffective or cannot be used. Common side effects include gastrointestinal discomforts such as diarrhea, bloating, nausea, and dizziness.

Plasmapheresis and Familial Hypercholesterolemia

Plasmapheresis is a blood-filtering procedure that is used to dramatically reduce triglycerides and may also be used to remove LDL. The procedure may be beneficial for patients with severe hereditary forms of high cholesterol that do not respond to other therapies. Studies suggest, for example, that plasmapheresis is particularly useful for patients with familial hypercholesterolemia. The process takes about 3 hours. If not performed regularly, its benefits last only about 2 weeks. People using this procedure are still advised to maintain a healthy diet and continue to take any prescribed medications to control cholesterol.

Ezetimibe

Ezetimibe (Zetia) inhibits the absorption of cholesterol in the intestines and is proving to be very effective when used in combination with statins. In one study, a combination of ezetimibe and simvastatin (Zocor) reduced LDL cholesterol levels by 57% compared to 18% with ezetimibe alone and 44% with simvastatin alone. A 2004 study demonstrated that ezetimibe might be particularly useful for patients who cannot achieve their cholesterol goals with statins alone.

Investigative Therapies

CETP Inhibitors. Cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors, such as the experimental drug torcetrapib, are being investigated for their effect on raising HDL ("good" cholesterol) levels while lowering LDL ("bad" cholesterol) levels. Torcetrapib, both alone and in combination with statin therapy, is being studied in several clinical trials. A small trial published in 2004 in the New England Journal of Medicine indicated promising results, particularly when torcetrapib was administered along with a statin.

Selective Estrogen-Receptor Modulators(SERMs). Selective estrogen-receptor modulators (SERMs) have been designed to produce the benefits of estrogen without its risks. They are thought to act like estrogen in some tissues but behave like estrogen blockers (antiestrogens) in others. They include tamoxifen (Nolvadex), raloxifene (Evista), and droloxifene. Any beneficial effects of the SERMs on cholesterol and the heart are still unclear. SERMs pose a risk for deep vein blood clots, which may have implications for people with heart problems. Longer studies are needed on possible risks and benefits.

Recombinant ApoA-I Milano. ApoA-I Milano is a type of HDL protein that is found in people with very low levels of HDL. A 2003 study showed that treating patients with a synthetic form of HDL, derived from ApoA-I Milano, caused a significant regression of atherosclerosis. Ongoing trials will evaluate whether this drug can prevent cardiovascular events such as heart attack or death.

Resources

• http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/about/ncep/  -- National Cholesterol Education Program
• http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/  -- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
• www.acc.org  -- American College of Cardiology
• www.americanheart.org  -- American Heart Association
• www.medped.org  -- Information on familial hypercholesterolemia
• www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/bmi/calc-bmi.htm  -- Calculate your BMI
• www.eatright.org  -- American Dietetic Association

References

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Baigent C, Keech A, Kearney PM, Blackwell L, Buck G, Pollicino C, et al. Efficacy and safety of cholesterol-lowering treatment: prospective meta-analysis of data from 90,056 participants in 14 randomised trials of statins. Lancet. 2005;366(9493):1267-1278.

Carroll MD, Lacher DA, Sorlie PD, Cleeman JI, Gordon DJ, Wolz M, et al. Trends in serum lipids and lipoproteins of adults, 1960-2002. JAMA. 2005;294(14):1773-1781.

Cohen JC, Boerwinkle E, Mosley TH Jr, Hobbs HH. Sequence variations in PCSK9, low LDL, and protection against coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(12):1264-1272.

Halperin RO, Sesso HD, Ma J, Buring JE, Stampfer MJ, Gaziano JM. Dyslipidemia and the risk of incident hypertension in men. Hypertension. 2006;47(1):45-50.

Nissen SE, Nicholls SJ, Sipahi I, Libby P, Raichlen JS, Ballantyne CM, et al. Effect of very high-intensity statin therapy on regression of coronary atherosclerosis: the ASTEROID trial. JAMA. 2006 Mar 13; [Epub ahead of print]

Nordmann AJ, Nordmann A, Briel M, Keller U, Yancy WS Jr, Brehm BJ, et al. Effects of low-carbohydrate vs low-fat diets on weight loss and cardiovascular risk factors: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(3):285-293.

Sacks FM, Lichtenstein A, Van Horn L, Harris W, Kris-Etherton P, Winston M; et al. Soy protein, isoflavones, and cardiovascular health: an American Heart Association Science Advisory for professionals from the Nutrition Committee. Circulation. 2006;113(7):1034-1044.

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