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In This Report

•	Highlights
•	Introduction
•	Considerations
•	Male Contraception
•	Surgery
•	Complications
•	Unexpected Pregnancy
•	Long-Term Complications
•	Reversal Surgery
•	Assisted Reproductive Techn...
•	Resources
•	References

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Vasectomy

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Vasectomy and Vasovasostomy

Highlights

New Research

Vasectomy Procedures

• No-scalpel vasectomy is the safest type of vasectomy, but it is difficult to perform and requires an experienced surgeon. A simpler type of no-scalpel vasectomy, called percutaneous vasectomy, is showing good results. In general, no-scalpel vasectomy causes less pain and fewer complications than standard vasectomy.
• Fascial interposition can help improve the success of standard vasectomy. Fascial interposition is performed after the surgeon cuts the vas deferens. (The vas deferens is the tube that carries the sperm from the testes.) Cautery combined with fascial interposition is the best approach. Fascial interposition combined with ligation and excision also works well.
• A saline (salt water) flush performed during vasectomy may help remove leftover sperm. But according to a recent clinical trial, the saline flush does not help to decrease the time it takes for men to achieve azoospermia (complete absence of sperm).

Pregnancy After Vasectomy or Vasectomy Reversal

• Pregnancy after vasectomy is rare, but can happen. The risk is greatest in the months immediately following the procedure, when there are still active sperm left in the semen. Birth control should be used until a doctor confirms that the semen is free of sperm.
• Most men achieve azoospermia after around three months and 20 ejaculations. Doctors recommend that patients return for semen testing at 6 weeks, 3 months, and 1 year following their vasectomy. According to recent studies, only around 8% of men actually make these important follow-up visits.
• A surgeon’s experience is important for increasing the chances of a successful vasectomy. Patients should make sure that their surgeon has performed at least 50 vasectomy procedures.
• For patients who wish to have their vasectomy reversed, new microsurgical techniques are improving success rates.

Introduction

In the United States, vasectomy emerged as a popular method of permanent contraception during the 1960s. Within a decade, 750,000 men were undergoing vasectomies each year. Vasectomy rates markedly declined in the 1990s and have now plateaued at about 500,000 a year. Worldwide, an estimated 42 million couples use vasectomy as a method of birth control.

The procedure works by surgically interrupting the route that the sperm take from the testicles (where they are produced) to the penis. After vasectomy, the testicles still continue to generate sperm, but their movement is blocked at the site of the vasectomy. Eventually the sperm die and the patient''s body absorbs them. During sex, semen is produced in the same amount as before vasectomy, but this fluid does not contain sperm.

> Pathway of Sperm

Click the icon to see an animation about vasectomy.

Vasectomy should not be confused with castration. It has no noticeable impact on a man''s ability to perform sexually, or on his sensation of orgasm and pleasure. It does not affect the balance of male hormones, male sex characteristics, or sex drive. Testosterone continues to be produced in the testes and delivered into the blood stream. Sperm form a very small portion of semen, so patients notice no difference in the amount of semen produced during orgasm.

Click the icon to see an image of sperm.

Considerations

Having a vasectomy is a serious decision. The surgery is intended to be permanent. The great majority of men who seek a vasectomy have been married for ten years or more. Not all are good candidates, however. It is important that both the woman and the man completely agree that they no longer want to have children. They should also agree that permanent birth control is the right decision for them. Ideally, the couple should view the operation as a mutual commitment to an already successful marriage or relationship. Vasectomy generally is not a good idea if the couple''s relationship is under great stress; it is not a cure for emotional or sexual problems between a man and woman.

After deciding that permanent birth control is the best solution, a couple still has the option of either vasectomy for the male, or tubal ligation for the female.

Still studies indicate that between 5 -11% of men who have vasectomies regret the decision. In fact, in a 2001 study, 56% of men seeking treatment for fertility were hoping to reverse their vasectomies. Thirty years ago, this percentage was only 5%.

A reversal procedure called vasovasostomy is available, but it is a major operation that provides no guarantee of restored fertility. In a 2000 Australian study of procedures performed between 1980 and 1996, vasectomy rates had leveled off but vasovasostomy rates had increased in men by nearly 70% in the most recent 5-year period compared to the earliest 5-year period.

The Influence of Short-Term Stress

Vasectomy should not be undertaken in response to temporary stressful situations that might block the desire for children. Such conditions may include illness, temporary financial crisis, death in the family, or birth of a child. Couples should wait through such short-term stresses or seek counseling or psychotherapy to be sure that they are not making a decision they will later regret.

All Future Scenarios. Before deciding on a vasectomy, the couple should consider all future scenarios for their life together, such as the following examples:

• If a couple already has children, how would they feel about a vasectomy if one of their children died?
• If financial stress is triggering the decision for a vasectomy, would improved affluence increase their desire for children?
• How would the man consider the vasectomy if his current relationship ended, either by divorce or the woman''s death?

Emotional Implications for the Man and Woman

The word "sterilization" has a deep emotional connotation for many people. Even though a couple may rationally accept the idea of a vasectomy, it is extremely important for each partner to be as open as possible about any negative feelings they might associate with the procedure. Such feelings on the part of either partner can have devastating consequences on a relationship if they surface only after the procedure has been performed. Openness with each other is imperative in order to make a decision that is clear of any hidden apprehensions. Neither partner should be too embarrassed to request counseling if the emotional aspects involved in making the decision are too difficult to solve between themselves.

What the man may be feeling:

• A man may have a poor self image, including concerns for his own physical health or sexual ability. Such men are likely to have a difficult time adjusting psychologically to vasectomy.
• A man may not actually really want the procedure but may not want to confront a partner he loves who wants him to have it.

What the woman may be feeling:

• A woman might believe, incorrectly, that a vasectomy is emasculating, but she might not want to express this idea to her partner.
• On the other hand, some women fear that vasectomy may make their partner more attractive and encourage outside affairs. (Research from the 1970s indicates that married men who have a vasectomy are no more likely to indulge in extramarital sex than fertile men.)

Sperm Banking

Storing frozen sperm in a sperm bank before vasectomy might enable the patient to have children later. Before the vasectomy, the patient collects sperm, which are frozen and stored until he wants to have a child. In one study, 1.5% of men who had stored sperm later used it for conception and most were successful. Other studies have shown a lower success rate, however, and it is a very expensive process. Experts believe that a patient who wants to bank sperm should probably reconsider his decision to have a vasectomy because such a concern may indicate doubts about giving up his ability to father a child.

Male Contraception

As many as 40% of couples seeking vasectomy have experienced a failure with their previous method of nonpermanent birth control. Such failures can occur from misplacement of a diaphragm, an incorrectly implanted IUD, or noncompliance with an oral contraception regimen. Couples who are unsure about permanent sterility should still consider other methods and improving their use.

Withdrawal

Withdrawal before ejaculation is a form of natural contraception, but it is extremely risky and most people find it unsatisfactory. If used on a regular basis, the average risk for pregnancy is 24%.

Condoms

The only other form of male contraception currently available is the condom. However, the average rate of pregnancy for couples that rely only on condoms for protection is still 12%. And in adolescents the risk with condoms is even higher, 18%. Even for those who use a good-quality condom correctly, the annual risk for pregnancy is 3%. The condom should be put on before intercourse when the penis is erect, long before ejaculation, since the male can discharge sufficient semen to cause pregnancy before ejaculation occurs. (Even after a vasectomy, men who are not in a monogamous relationship with an HIV-negative partner should always wear a condom during sex for protection against sexually transmitted diseases. Vasectomy is not protective.)

Click the icon to see an illustrated series detailing how to apply a condom.

Condom Materials.

• Latex. Condoms made of latex rubber are the most common types. When they are contoured for better fit and contain a spermicide they can provide fairly effective protection. Some people are allergic to latex, however, and in some cases the reaction can be very dangerous. The latex smell may also be unpleasant for some people.
• Polyurethane. Polyurethane condoms (Avanti, eZ-on) are now available. It is hoped that eventually they will prove to be superior to latex in a number of ways, including strength, sensitivity, and durability. At this point, they have good acceptance by couples but have a higher breakage rate (6 - 7.2%) compared to the latex condom (1.1 -  2%). Other synthetic materials are under investigation.
• Animal Membranes. Condoms made from animal membrane can prevent pregnancy, but sexually transmitted infections can permeate them.
• Lubricants, Lubricants can be used to prevent tearing. Petroleum-based products (such as Vaseline and baby oil) and vegetable oils should not be used because they can corrode the condom.

Spermicides. Some condoms come prelubricated with sperm-killing substances called spermicides. The standard active ingredient in spermicides in the US is nonoxynol-9, which attacks the surface of the sperm cell. These spermicidal-coated condoms, however, are no longer recommended for a number of reasons. Side effects include irritation of the vagina or penis, particularly if used often or in large amounts. Its use may also promote yeast and urinary tract infections in women. Evidence now strongly suggests that nonoxynol-9 does not provide any additional protection against sexually-transmitted diseases. In fact, research now suggests that it actually increases the risk for HIV in women, possibly by causing injury in the vaginal area. Spermicides are no longer recommended for use with male condoms.

A heat activated, microbe-fighting gel may offer an effective alternative, but is still undergoing early testing.

Hormonal Contraceptives for Men

Researchers are currently at work on hormonal contraceptives that reduce levels of sperm. Hormonal contraception for men is more complicated than for women and research is still very preliminary.

Progestins. Much of the research is focusing on progestins, derivatives of progesterone, a primary family hormone, which in men interfere with sperm production. Studies generally are testing progestins (such as desogestrel, etonogestrel, or levonorgestrel) with addition of testosterone to maintain normal male hormone levels. There is a typical delay of 2 to 3 months before infertility is achieved. Sperm production returns to normal when the agents are stopped. Studies are promising, but there are some significant side effects, including acne, weight gain, and reductions in HDL cholesterol.

Prolactin. Prolactin, a hormone in both men and women, is also being investigated. In men, it can reduce sperm production.

Gossypol

Gossypol, a yellow pigment extracted from the roots, seeds, and stems of the cotton plant, has been used in China, African, and Brazil as a male contraceptive. Cotton root was also used as folk medicine in the American South to treat menstrual pain and to induce abortions. The chemical destroys the lining of tubules in the testicles where sperm are produced, thereby inhibiting their formation. A 2000 Brazilian study reported that a male oral contraceptive derived from gossypol suppressed sperm production within up to 16 weeks. In men who were taking lower doses, sperm production returned in most of them within a year after they stopped taking the contraceptive. Gossypol does not appear to reduce sexual desire or frequency of intercourse. In about 20% of men, sperm production does not come back, so it should be considered as potentially permanent birth control. It also may not be effective in some men, since small numbers of sperm may survive. Researchers are investigating gossypol-derived compounds that may have less toxicity. No one should take any so-called natural gossypol product without consultation with a doctor.

Reversible Vas Occlusion

Some attempts have been made to develop procedures that block sperm flow in the vas deferens using various drugs or materials but which are reversible. To date, none have been totally effective as a male contraceptive.A promising method uses a substance called styrene maleic anhydride, or SMA (Risug). This substance is injected in the vas deferens. It coats the walls and blocks the tube. It is removed by flushing the vas deferens with a solvent. It is mostly being investigated overseas.

Surgery

Vasectomy is a minor operation that takes about 30 minutes and is usually performed in a doctor''s office or a family planning clinic. If the operation is performed under local anesthesia, the cost ranges from about $500 to $1000. Most insurance policies will cover vasectomies performed as a minor outpatient procedure, but will not cover vasectomies performed as major surgery in an operating room. If a Vasclip procedure is performed, there may be an additional cost of $400 to $500 for this device.

The Procedure.

• To prevent increased risk of bleeding, patients should avoid taking aspirin or NSAIDs (Advil, Motrin) for 10 days prior to the procedure.
• Before the operation, the patient''s scrotum is shaved and cleaned.
• A local anesthetic is injected into the scrotum. Patients should ask their doctor about applying an anesthetic cream (e.g., EMLA) before the injection to reduce its pain.
• The surgeon makes a tiny incision on one side of the scrotum and locates one vas deferens. The vas deferens is isolated, drawn through the incision, and clamped at two sites close to each other.
• The segment between the clamps (which should be more than 15 mm, or a little over half an inch) is then removed.
• The surgeon then seals off (ligates) the tube with surgical clips, sutures, or cauterization with an electric needle. Fascial interposition is an additional technique that may be used in combination with these methods to improve closure. With fascial interposition, the surgeon pulls the fibrous layer covering the vas (the fascia) over the cut end of the vas and sews it closed. This increases the barrier and further reduces residual sperm. Recent research suggests that fascial interposition combined with cauterization or ligation/excision is the best method for sealing off the vas.
• The surgeon may choose to close off either one end of the vas (called an open-ended procedure) or both ends (closed-ended technique). In the open-ended procedure, the vas section connected to the testis is left open and the one leading to the prostate is sealed; in the closed-ended approach both are sealed. Many surgeons now prefer the open-ended version because it is proving to have lower complication and failure rates than the closed-ended method, and it results in fewer cases of chronic pain.
• After closing off the tube, the vas deferens is gently placed back into the scrotum.
• The procedure is then repeated on the other side.
• After a short rest, usually about half an hour, the patient can leave the doctor''s office or clinic. Arrangements should be made ahead of time for someone else to drive the patient home.

Click the icon to see an illustrated series detailing a vasectomy.

No-Scalpel Vasectomy (NSV)

A method of vasectomy called no-scalpel vasectomy (NSV) that does not require the use of a scalpel was developed in China in 1974. NSV is now used in at least one-third of vasectomies.

The technique takes about 10 minutes and is performed in a doctor''s office or a family planning clinic. The no-scalpel vasectomy (NSV) differs from a conventional vasectomy in the method of accessing the vasa deferentia:

• In NSV, the doctor feels for the vas deferens under the skin and holds them in place with a small ring clamp.
• Instead of making two incisions, the doctor employs a sharp hemostat, a special instrument that makes one tiny puncture and then is used to gently stretch the opening until the vas deferens can be pulled through it. (The surgeon must rotate his wrist to pull the vas out--called a supination maneuver--which may be difficult to perform.)
• The vas is then sealed off using the same methods (clips, sutures, cauterization using an electric needle, or some combination) as conventional vasectomy. As with standard vasectomy, the closures can be open- or closed-ended.
• There is very little bleeding with the no-scalpel vasectomy. No stitches are needed to close the tiny opening, which heals quickly and leaves no scar.

When performed correctly, NSV works just as well as conventional vasectomy and takes less time. Current research indicates that NSV is the safest type of vasectomy procedure. NSV is difficult to perform, however, and most surgeons must perform about 15 to 20 procedures in order to be proficient. A simpler method of NSV, called percutaneous vasectomy, is now being used. Recent research suggests that it works as well as standard NSV and is easier to perform. Percutaneous vasectomy uses the same instruments as no-scalpel vasectomy, but with a different surgical technique. The hemostat is used to first puncture the skin (instead of to spearing the vas and lifting it out). The ringed clamp is then passed through the incision and used to enclose the section of the vas that is then pulled out for closure. This avoids the need for the difficult wrist maneuver in NSV.

Percutaneous Vasectomy. Percutaneous vasectomy is an interesting approach that employs the same instruments as in no-scalpel vasectomy, but uses them in a different way that might avoid some of the learning problems. The hemostat is used to first puncture the skin (instead of to spearing the vas and lifting it out). The ringed clamp is then passed through the incision and used to enclose the section of the vas that is then pulled out for closure. This avoids the need for the difficult wrist maneuver in NSV.

Other Vasectomy Variations

Vasclip. The Vasclip is a new alternative to standard vasectomy and has received FDA clearance. This very small rice-sized plastic clip locks around the vas deferens and stops the flow of sperm. One small study reported fewer complications than with standard vasectomy, including infection and swelling. It may be more easily reversible than a standard vasectomy.

Complications

Vasectomy is a low-risk procedure and the complications, which occur in about 10% of patients, are usually easy to control. One study of no-scalpel vasectomy, for example, reported only seven complications out of 4,255 procedures and they were mostly minor. Pain or soreness typically lingers for a few days after the procedure, but this is normal and usually does not require a return visit to the doctor.No deaths resulting from vasectomy have been reported in the United States.

Postoperative Care

Nearly all men recover completely in a few days. The following are some guidelines after the operation to help recovery:

• The local anesthetic wears off about 1 to 2 hours after the procedure the effects of the local anesthetic wear off, and most patients then experience a dull ache in the testicles and groin. The doctor may prescribe a painkiller for the first few days, continuing with mild over-the-counter pain relievers if discomfort persists. Acetaminophen (Tylenol) with or without codeine is the primary choice for postoperative pain. Aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil, Medipren, Motrin, Nuprin), naproxen (Aleve), or other so-called NSAIDs can cause bleeding and should be avoided.
• The patient should stay in bed on his back for at least one day and apply ice packs for 8 hours. The doctor may suggest that the patient wear an athletic supporter.
• Some oozing of blood onto the gauze pads is normal during the first 2 days after the operation.
• The patient should not perform any heavy physical labor for at least two days. Sports and heavy lifting may be resumed 2 to 3 weeks after surgery.
• A semen analysis is done about six to twelve weeks after the surgery to ensure that no live sperm remain in the semen. The semen is usually collected at home in a small jar and delivered to the doctor''s office, where it is examined under a microscope. A second semen analysis is sometimes performed again about four months after the vasectomy, although many experts now believe that a second sample is unnecessary unless sperm found the first time were motile (still able to move). Of note: The British Andrology Society recommends taking the initial sample after 4 months and when the patient has ejaculated at least 24 times.

Postoperative Pain

All men experience some pain in the scrotum (the sac that contains the testes) after the operation. This pain generally disappears within two days, although the patient may feel sore for a few more days. In rare cases, pain can be persistent, which is known as post-vasectomy pain syndrome. The cause of this is unclear.

Itching and Hives

A few men may have an allergic reaction to the local anesthesia and develop itching and hives.

Bleeding

Frequently, blood may seep under the skin, so that the scrotum and penis appear to be bruised. If there is no dangerous swelling, this painless problem usually disappears without treatment within a week or two. If the patient bleeds excessively in the days after the operation and requires more than two or three gauze changes per day, he should call his doctor.

Hematoma

In between 2 -  5% of cases, bleeding inside the scrotum can cause a painful swelling known as a hematoma. In these cases, the scrotum swells up shortly after vasectomy. The doctor should be called immediately.

Infection

Infections occur in between 4 -  9% of men after vasectomy. The incision site may become infected, causing redness and swelling around the incision. Antibiotics, antimicrobial creams or ointments, or both, along with hot baths several times a day will usually clear the infection in a few days. There have been a few cases of infections in the lining of the heart (endocarditis) and severe gangrene of the scrotum, but they are extremely rare.

Unexpected Pregnancy

Pregnancy rates after a vasectomy are estimated to be very low, about 1 in 1,000.There are two main reasons for an unexpected pregnancy:

• Residual sperm were still alive when the partners had unprotected sex. This is the most common reason for an unexpected pregnancy after a vasectomy.
• Failure of the procedure and recanalization. Failure in some cases is due to a technical error, but most often it is due to recanalization--when the cut ends of the vas spontaneously reconnect. Success rates are best when an experienced surgeon performs the vasectomy.

Men should have several follow-up examinations after the procedure to be sure that there are no residual or new sperm. It takes about 3 months or 20 ejaculations to clear out any active sperm. Although physicians urge men to return for annual follow-up testing, only around 8% of men do so.

Residual Live Sperm and Resuming Sexual Activity

Once the patient feels comfortable, he can resume sexual activity, usually in about a week. During ejaculation, the patient may experience some discomfort in the groin and testicles at first due to the contraction of the vas deferens. This almost always diminishes as the tissues heal.

However, after the operation there are always some active sperm left in the semen for several months so the risk for pregnancy persists. Attempts to solve this problem have been unsuccessful to date. It is, therefore, essential that the patient and his partner continue to use other methods of birth control until his sperm count is zero. The patient is considered sterile only when there are no live or moving (motile ) sperm in his semen. It takes on average around three months or 20 ejaculations to clear the viable sperm from the reproductive system, but it may take some men as long as six months to become sterile.

About a third of men experience a recurrence or persistence of sperm that have no ability to move (immotile) 12 weeks after surgery and, in one study, about 7% had persistently immotile sperm. Immotile sperm, however, cannot swim up the vaginal canal and pose no danger for fertility. In rare cases, vasectomies have to be repeated because live sperm persisted in the semen. The risk for sperm surviving indefinitely is very low, however.

Recanalization

The primary reason for vasectomy failure itself is recanalization--when the cut ends of the vas deferens spontaneously reconnect. Recanalization in some cases may be due to sperm granulomas. These are tiny balls of debris that form from sperm, scar tissue, and white blood cells at the incision site. Cells lining the inside of the vas deferens grow through the scar tissue and form a new channel through which the sperm can now move. In general, surgeons can reduce the risk for recanalization by leaving a gap between the two cut ends. (A 2003 study, however, suggested that the length of portion cut had no effect on the risk for recanalization.)

This natural vasectomy reversal can occur after any vasectomy surgical procedure, but it is an uncommon event, with most studies reporting it occurring in less than 1% of cases. It should be noted that when recanalization occurs, sperm counts are almost always very low and pregnancies are still rare. Most cases of recanalization develop within several months after the operation. In very rare cases (about 0.6%), sperm have reappeared a year or even longer after vasectomy.

Long-Term Complications

Sperm Granulomas. After vasectomy, sperm often leak from the vasectomy site or from a rupture in the epididymis, the tightly coiled, thin tube that connects the testicle to the vas deferens. Sperm elicit a very strong response from the immune system, which views them as foreign agents and attacks them. Sperm leakage therefore provokes an inflammatory reaction. The body forms pockets to trap the sperm in scar tissue and inflammatory cells. Firm balls of tissue about one-half inch in diameter then form; these are known as sperm granulomas. They occur in about 60% of vasectomy patients.

Although they rarely cause serious problems, one study reported that sperm granulomas were troublesome in 15% of patients. In about 3% to 5% of cases, sperm granulomas obstruct the already blocked ends of the vas deferens and generate pressure build-up in the epididymis. This can cause a rupture from the pressure of the fluid. In such cases, the testicles may become enlarged and painful. A damaged epididymis can be repaired, but if the patient later wishes a reversal of the vasectomy, disruption of this tiny tube makes success much less likely.

Epididymitis. Epididymitis occurs when an inflammation at the site of the vasectomy causes swelling of the epididymis. This condition may occur within the first year and can be treated with heat and anti-inflammatory medications. It usually clears up within a week.

Long-Term Psychologic Reactions

The male reproductive structures include the penis, the scrotum, the seminal vesicles and the prostate.

Positive Effects. Surveys indicate that about 90% of men are satisfied with the operation and that the feeling persists. One study reported even higher satisfaction in the partners, with more than 95% of wives reporting satisfaction with the procedure. Younger and older couples, with or without children, were all equally likely to have favorable reactions to vasectomies. Most men who have vasectomies feel relieved that the worry about pregnancy is over, and most couples respond well to their new-found contraceptive freedom.

Negative Effects. Some men go through a brief period of self-consciousness, wondering whether others notice some difference in their masculinity. About half of vasectomy patients keep their operations a secret. They may believe that the operation is tainted by the stigma of emasculation and that knowledge of it would degrade them in the eyes of their friends and family. For most men, this tentativeness passes quickly.

In a few men, however, problems of poor self-image persist and require counseling. Some may experience depressed and angry emotions. They may actually require a mourning period over the loss of their reproductive ability (similar to what some women go through during menopause). These negative feelings usually resolve over time as the patient moves on to the next stage of his life.

A small percentage of couples experience serious difficulties with the adjustment. Their emotional distress most often manifests itself in sexual dysfunction, such as impotence, premature ejaculation, or painful intercourse. In such cases, however, the vasectomy is probably the catalyst but not the cause of such extreme reactions. Studies have indicated that men who experience impotence after vasectomy are more likely to have female partners who are unable to accept the operation.

Chronic Pain

Research has indicated that up to a third of men has some pain in or around the testes that lasts longer than three months. In a study of 700,000 vasectomized patients in the Netherlands, up to 10% reported long-term chronic pain around the testicles. In one survey, 19% of subjects reported chronic pain that was simply a nuisance and 12% reported more severe pain. Another study that followed men for an average of 19 months reported that 27% had some pain in the testicles, although in the great majority, the pain was brief.

Causes of Chronic Pain. In many cases the source of the pain after vasectomy is not known, although some of the following conditions may be a source of pain:

• Scarring from the surgery.
• Obstruction of part of the epididymis that causes swelling in another section.
• Pinched nerves.
• In about one percent of all vasectomies, the epididymis becomes so congested with dead sperm and fluid that the patient feels a dull ache in his testicles. This condition, called chronic orchialgia, usually disappears within six months.
• Some experts believe that granulomas may cause more chronic pain than generally believed. Other experts point out, however, that open-ended procedures, which increase the risk for granuloma production, result in less pain than closed-ended techniques that produce fewer granulomas.

Treatments for Chronic Pain. Surgery may be required if time or more conservative measures fail to relieve pain. Procedures may include the following:

• Removal of the epididymis and surrounding tissue tends to be effective if the pain is in the scrotum (the sac that contains the testes) and if abnormalities in the epididymis can be observed using ultrasound.
• A surgical procedure that blocks nerves in the sperm cord can bring relief in severe cases.
• Surgery to reverse vasectomy (vasovasostomy) may relieve chronic pain. In one study nearly 70% of men became pain free, although researchers were unable to discover any biologic differences after the procedure that might explain such relief.

Prostate and Testicular Cancer

Prostate Cancer. Prostate cancer is the second most common cause of cancer death among American men, and 30% of all American men will develop at least localized prostate cancer at some time in their lives. Long-term high-normal levels of testosterone may be associated with an increased risk for prostate cancer. Because testosterone levels remain higher for a longer period in men who had vasectomy, experts have been concerned that such men have a greater chance for developing the cancer.

Click the icon to see an image of prostate cancer.

A 2002 meta-analysis of 22 studies indicated that there is a 10% increase in risk for every 10 years after the procedure. The authors of the study reported, however, that such increased risk may not be caused by vasectomy since the association was small and could be due to bias. Most recent studies, in fact, are reporting no higher danger. A rigorous 2002 study from New Zealand, for example, which has the highest vasectomy rates in the world, found no increased risk of prostate cancer from the procedure, even 25 years after the operation.A 2002 study in California, in fact, reported a lower risk for prostate cancer in men who had had vasectomies.

It is possible that the higher rates reported in the early studies may simply be due to earlier prostate screening in men who have had vasectomies. Indeed one study reported that about 25% of doctors screened men with vasectomies earlier for prostate cancer than those without the operation.

An expert panel has recommended that vasectomy reversal is not warranted to prevent prostate cancer and that screening criteria for prostate cancer should be the same for men with and without vasectomies. Men with a family history of prostate cancer can discuss the risks and benefits of vasectomy with their doctors, although the weight of evidence to date indicates there is no link between vasectomy and prostate cancer.

Testicular Cancer. There have also been some concerns that vasectomy could increase the risk of testicular cancer. However, studies show there is no association between the two.

Immune System Changes

Vasectomy is known to provoke immune system changes.

Anti-sperm Antibodies. Sperm continue to be produced after vasectomy but disposed of in the body. In some men the immune system mistakes these sperm as foreign proteins (antigens) and produces anti-sperm antibodies that are designed to target and interfere with sperm''s motility (ability to move). Up to two thirds of vasectomized men develop such anti-sperm antibodies. Infections in the genital tract, such as orchitis or sexually transmitted diseases, increase the risk for anti-sperm antibodies. The anti-sperm response itself appears to be a problem only if a man wishes to reverse the vasectomy.

Heart Disease and Other Changes. Experts are concerned that, theoretically, changes in the immune system might cause damage in other parts of the body, including contributing to heart disease. Animal research, in fact, has suggested that heart disease accelerates after vasectomy. However, a large 2002 follow-up study of men who had vasectomies found no increase in risk for heart disease, stroke, or peripheral artery disease, even after more than 20 years.Nor did researchers find any evidence of greater risk for hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis) or inflammation, which is increasingly thought to play a role in cardiovascular disease.

Click the icon to see an image of atherosclerosis.

This study supports two earlier major studies that found no significant risk to a man''s overall health. In fact, both studies found that men who had vasectomies actually experienced a slightly lower risk for coronary artery disease, and one study also found lower risks for stroke, high blood pressure, and chest pain. One of the studies even found that men who had vasectomies had a longer lifespan than those without the procedure. (In both studies, however, these benefits were not considered statistically significant.)

Kidney Stones

Studies are indicating that men younger than their mid-forties who have vasectomies have twice the risk for kidney stones as their peers who have not had vasectomies. The increased risk persists for up to 14 years after the operation. Kidney stones are not life threatening but they can be extremely painful, and just to be on the safe side, men who have had vasectomies should drink plenty of fluids to help prevent them.

Click the icon to see an image of kidney stones.

Osteoporosis

There has been some concern that vasectomies increase the risk for osteoporosis in men. One study, however, found no higher incidence of bone loss in vasectomized men.

Reversal Surgery

Although men should consider vasectomy a permanent decision, vasovasostomy is a reversal procedure that may restore fertility in many men who change their mind. Vasovasostomies are also effective in relieving chronic pain from vasectomies in the rare case that this occurs.

One Australian study suggested that although the rate of vasectomies has not changed over the past few decades, the desire for reversal surgery increased by over 70% in the late 1990s compared to the early 1980s. Men who had vasectomies in their 20s are more likely to seek reversal later on than older men. The main reasons for requesting a reversal are remarriage, the death of a child, or an improvement in finances. Reversal may also be performed to relieve postvasectomy pain, which occurs in a small percentage of men. Fewer than 10% of patients who request reversals do so because of physical or psychological problems following vasectomy.

Vasovasostomy (Reversal Surgery) Procedures

Standard Procedure. Vasovasostomy reconnects the severed ends of the vas deferens to reestablish the flow of sperm. The procedure is difficult:

• It involves sewing together the two tiny ends of both tubes, each with pinhead-sized openings.
• If the vas deferens is blocked, the surgeon may try to connect the epididymis to an area in the vas deferens that bypasses the blockage.

Vasovasostomy can usually be done on an outpatient basis and patients can usually return to work within one to two weeks. It is far more difficult and expensive than vasectomy itself, however, and is even costlier if the procedure involves connecting the vas to the epididymis, which takes about three hours. It should be noted that reversal surgery is usually not reimbursed by insurance companies, and that the results may not be known for some time.

Microscopic versus Magnification Techniques. The surgeon may view the surgical site using either magnification instruments (called macroscopic vasovasostomy) or microscopic techniques. Advanced microscopic techniques are proving to increase the chances of a reversal''s success. Although macroscopic vasovasostomy has a slightly lower success rate, pregnancy rates can still be over 50%, and it is less expensive and has a shorter operating time than microscopic procedures.Still, a 2003 study suggested the microscopic approach is preferable for repeat vasovasostomies when the initial procedure failed.

Laser Techniques. Laser surgery is being investigated and may prove to require less surgical expertise, reduce operating time, and result in fewer complications. At this time, however, results vary widely.

Pregnancy Rates after Vasovasostomy

An Australian study reported that the pregnancy rates in the late 1990s after reversal surgery were nearly four times higher than they were in the early 1980s. Pregnancy rates of over 50% are now being reported after a vasovasostomy. One study indicated that when successful conception occurs, it does at an average of one year after the surgery.

A successful reversal is more likely if the following conditions are present:

• The section removed during vasectomy was not long.
• The original procedure was performed on straight sections of the vas deferens.
• The pieces joined during the vasovasostomy are of equal size.

The closer in time the vasovasostomy is to the original vasectomy the better. In one large study, the pregnancy rates were 76% for those who had vasectomy less than three years before reversal surgery, but decreased to 30% for those men who had a vasectomy more than 15 years earlier. The lower rates as time goes by are probably due to increasing chance for obstruction of the epididymis and the development of anti-sperm antibodies. Success rates, according to some studies, are slightly better if the male partner does not change female partners after the procedure. Other studies suggest that it makes no difference if the man has a new female partner. The age of the woman is an important factor, and the chances of achieving pregnancy are best for women younger than age 35.

Causes of Vasovasostomy Failure

Even though tubes are re-opened and sperm is restored in as many as 85% of men who undergo vasovasostomy, pregnancy is not guaranteed. A number of factors may play a role in the failure of reversal surgery.

Epididymis Obstruction. If the sperm count does not recover within a reasonable period after vasovasostomy, it is often due to blockage from scarring that has occurred in the epididymis. This sometimes can be corrected with a second procedure. One study reported that the doctor may be able to detect obstruction before the vasovasostomy by pressing and manipulating (palpating) the epididymis. If any part seems swollen or larger than other parts, an obstruction is very likely to be present and the patient is likely to need a vasoepididymostomy, which creates a bypass around the obstruction.

Antisperm Antibodies. In many cases in which vasovasostomy fails, the reversal procedure reopens the tubes but fertility is impaired because of a process called autoimmunity. With this condition, important immune factors called antibodies attack the body''s own cells, mistaking them for antigens (any foreign microinvader that the immune system perceives as a threat).

In the case of vasectomy, the autoantibodies attack the sperm, and so are called antisperm antibodies. Such antibodies develop when sperm continue to be produced after vasectomy, but, instead of being confined to the reproductive passages, they leak out into the body. Once out of their natural habitat, the immune system perceives them as foreign invaders and develops antibodies to attack them.

Antigens are large molecules (usually proteins) on the surface of cells, viruses, fungi, bacteria, and some non-living substances such as toxins, chemicals, drugs, and foreign particles. The immune system recognizes antigens and produces antibodies that destroy substances containing antigens.

The antisperm antibodies bind to specific parts of the sperm (e.g., the head or tail) and cause problems depending on the site of attachment. Sperm may stick together (agglutinate), fail to interact with the woman''s cervix, or fail to penetrate the egg. Even after vasovasostomy, such antibodies often persist.

Oxidation. The immune factors that trigger the autoimmune process may have other harmful effects as well. In a process called oxidation, they can trigger the release of particles called free radicals, highly reactive oxygen molecules that, in excess, can do considerable damage to cells and genetic material. When high levels of free radicals persist after a vasectomy, they may, in theory at least, injure sperm DNA, contributing to infertility.

Reoperations After a Failed Vasovasostomy

Repeat Vasovasostomy. If pregnancy fails, in some cases a repeat vasovasostomy may be effective. Success rates depend on several factors:

• The doctor''s skill.
• Complications from the original operation.
• Effects of anti-sperm antibodies.
• Time elapsed since vasectomy (the shorter the better).
• History of previous children. In one study, conception rates after reoperations were highest (80%) in couples who had had previous children. The pregnancy rate was only 17% when men had remarried.

A 2003 study indicated that the microscopic approach may be preferable for many repeat vasovasostomies.

Vasoepididymostomy. Vasoepididymostomy is a microsurgical technique that is useful when a vasovasostomy has failed because of damage to the epididymis. This procedure creates a bypass around the obstruction. It may be done on one or both sides of the testes.

To appreciate the difficulty of this operation, one should realize that the epididymis is 1/300th of an inch wide with a wall thickness of 1/1000th of an inch. Microscopic techniques are critical for the success of this procedure and require a surgeon who specializes in them. Refinements in vasoepididymostomy techniques are showing promising results, resulting in opened tubes in 77% to over 85% of cases.

Success rates are higher for repairing obstructions closer to the testicles because the epididymis is wider in this area. In general, pregnancy rates are around 25%, but higher rates have been reported. In one 2002 study of men who had vasectomy reversal more than 15 years after the original procedure, 62% required vasoepididymostomy, and the overall pregnancy rate was 43%. Pregnancy rates ranged from 49% in those who had had their vasectomy 15 to19 years earlier to 25% in those who had the surgery 25 or more years before, with the highest rates occurring, not surprisingly, in those with the youngest wives.

Damage in other ducts and small tubes are a major reason for vasoepididymostomy failure. Ultrasound before the operation may be valuable to determine if these abnormalities exist, which would make it unlikely that the procedure would be successful.

If an initial vasoepididymostomy fails but conditions are favorable, a repeat procedure may still succeed. In a small 1999 study, two-thirds of men who had repeat vasoepididymostomy had sperm in their semen, and natural conception occurred in 25% of patients (3 out of 12) within 18 months.

Freezing Sperm Before a Reversal Surgeries

If the patient did not contribute sperm for freezing and banking before vasectomy, some doctors suggest freezing sperm obtained during vasovasostomy as insurance against failure. Such sperm can be used in assisted reproductive methods later on if natural intercourse fails to achieve pregnancy.

There is some controversy, however, surrounding routine use of frozen sperm before a vasovasostomy. One study reported that so many sperm were non-motile at the time of the reversal surgery that freezing sperm obtained during the procedure provided little benefit. Nevertheless, new fertilization techniques are using even non-motile sperm with some success. And other studies have reported some successful pregnancies with frozen sperm. Some experts recommend routine sperm retrieval only for men undergoing bilateral vasovasostomy (those performed on both sides) and possibly for men who are having vasovasostomy with vasoepididymostomy. Men should discuss these options with their doctor.

Assisted Reproductive Technologies

Assisted reproductive technologies (ART) are available for men who want to conceive children after a vasectomy. The shorter the period since the vasectomy the better the chances of success: In one study, success rates after ART were highest (34%) when it was performed within 10 years of their vasectomy and lowest (8%) when ART occurred more than 20 years after vasectomy. Of course, the couples would be older as the duration between procedures increased and so pregnancy rates would be lower in any case. However, in the study time elapsed after vasectomy appeared to have an effect independent of the couples' ages. Debate is ongoing about its advantages versus reversal surgeries for men who have had vasectomies and want children.

Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI)

The best ART procedure at this time for men who have had vasectomies or failed reversal surgery is called intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). In this procedure, sperm are taken from the epididymis or testes using needles or microsurgical techniques.

The procedure itself injects a single sperm into an egg with the aid of powerful microscopic and robotic instruments. The fertilized egg is then implanted in the woman.

Sperm Retrieval for Assisted Reproductive Technologies After Vasectomy

If a reversal surgery is not successful, sperm may be able to be retrieved from the testes or the epididymis for use in assisted reproductive technologies (ART). Various techniques are now available for retrieval. The procedure may be done under local or general anesthesia, using a spring-loaded biopsy device, a thin needle, incisions, or microsurgical techniques. Rigorous trials on the best technique are lacking, although all can be successful. The choice will depend on the experience of the clinic and any underlying problems.

Testicular Fine Needle Aspiration (TFNA). TFNA employs a fine needle to remove sperm. This can be performed with local anesthetic and by surgeons who do not have to be experienced in microsurgeries.

Microsurgical Epididymal Sperm Aspiration (MESA). MESA uses microsurgical techniques to collect sperm that are close to blocked portions of the epididymis. It involves an open incision and may be done under general or spinal anesthesia in a hospital setting, although the patient can often go home the same day. The doctor accesses the epididymis and retrieves sperm with an extremely fine needle-like device. It has the advantage that it can retrieve the largest number of sperm compared to other procedures. However, as with any invasive procedure, it carries some risk of complications, such as bleeding or infection.

Percutaneous Epididymal Sperm Aspiration (PESA). PESA uses a needle to obtain mature sperm from areas in the upper parts of the epididymis (the coiled tube where sperm are stored before ejaculation). It is done under local anesthesia, sometimes in the doctor''s office, is less expensive than other techniques, and recovery is fairly painless. However, it has less of a chance of achieving sufficient sperm than MESA and there is also a chance of hitting a blood vessel, causing bleeding.

Testicular Sperm Extraction (TESE). TESE is a microsurgery that removes a small amount of tissue from one or more areas of the testes using incisions and microsurgery techniques. The tissue is placed in a culture and chopped into tiny pieces. Sperm are liberated from the tiny tubes and extracted. It is a complex process, however. This is the second best method for men with vasectomies, according to some experts. It is more painful than PESA, however. In addition, if the procedure is repeated too often it can cause permanent alterations in testicular function that may even reduce male hormone levels.

Testicular Sperm Aspiration (TESA). TESA uses a needle-like biopsy device to draw a small sample of testicular tissue. Multiple attempts are sometimes required to retrieve sperm, and it is not as effective or as safe as TESE, although imaging techniques using ultrasound may improve results.

Resources

• www.engenderhealth.org -- EngenderHealth
• www.nichd.nih.gov -- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
• www.plannedparenthood.org -- Planned Parenthood
• www.fhi.org -- Family Health International
• www.auanet.org -- American Urological Association
• www.urologyhealth.org -- Urology Health
• www.vasectomy.com -- Information on vasectomy

References

Aradhya KW, Best K, Sokal DC. Recent developments in vasectomy. BMJ. 2005;330(7486):296-299.

Chan PT, Goldstein M. Superior outcomes of microsurgical vasectomy reversal in men with the same female partners. Fertil Steril. 2004;81(5):1371-1374.

Chen KC, Peng CC, Hsieh HM, Chiang HS. Simply modified no-scalpel vasectomy (percutaneous vasectomy)--a comparative study against the standard no-scalpel vasectomy. Contraception. 2005;71(2):153-156.

Christensen RE, Maples DC Jr. Postvasectomy semen analysis: are men following up? J Am Board Fam Pract. 2005;18(1):44-47.

Deneux-Tharaux C, Kahn E, Nazerali H, Sokal DC. Pregnancy rates after vasectomy: a survey of US urologists. Contraception. 2004;69(5):401-406.

Eisner B, Schuster T, Rodgers P, Ahmed M, Faerber G, Smith G, et al. A randomized clinical trial of the effect of intraoperative saline perfusion on postvasectomy azoospermia. Ann Fam Med. 2004;2(3):221-223.

Griffin T, Tooher R, Nowakowski K, Lloyd M, Maddern G. How little is enough? The evidence for post-vasectomy testing. J Urol. 2005;174(1):29-36.

Jamieson DJ, Costello C, Trussell J, Hillis SD, Marchbanks PA, Peterson HB; US Collaborative Review of Sterilization Working Group. The risk of pregnancy after vasectomy. Obstet Gynecol. 2004;103(5 Pt 1):848-850.

Kim SW, Ku JH, Park K, Son H, Paick JS. A different female partner does not affect the success of second vasectomy reversal. J Androl. 2005;26(1):48-52.

Labrecque M, Dufresne C, Barone MA, St-Hilaire K. Vasectomy surgical techniques: a systematic review. BMC Med. 2004;2:21.

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